General Studies Essays Use of Torture

General Studies Essays Use of Torture Can the Use of Torture be Justified? This report aims to, in the first instance, define torture. It then examines the history of torture and looks at international law that relates to torture.  Ã‚   The main part of the study analyses ethical theories in relation to torture and uses these ethical viewpoints to examine whether or not torture can be justified in any circumstances.   In addition, the Algerian War and the Iraq War will be used as case studies to further discuss the ethical issues surrounding torture.   Conclusions will be drawn and the author’s answer to the question ‘can the use of torture ever be justified?’ will be given, based on the findings in the rest of the report. Limitations of Study This study has its limitations.   First of all, only two case studies are used.   There are numerous cases of torture throughout the world and throughout history that could be utilised.   In doing so, perhaps a different conclusion would be made.   As torture is such an emotive subject it is difficult to ensure that the facts are truly represented.   Before the nineteenth century some countries publicly acknowledged torture as an instrument of judicial inquiry, however today the vast majority of countries where torture is practised will blankly deny any knowledge of it.   This, of course, makes a study of torture difficult. In addition, as will be seen, there are numerous, conflicting ethical theories that can be applied to the topic of torture.   A person’s personal beliefs will influence how much credence they give to each viewpoint.   Consequently, the author’s opinions are likely to differ from the reader’s.   Definition of Torture Torture has a widely understood definition of causing someone severe pain or mental anguish, usually in order to gain some information from the person being tortured, most usually a confession.   Amnesty International state that ‘torture is the systematic and deliberate infliction of acute pain in any form by one person on another, in order to accomplish the purpose of the former against the will of the latter’ (Klayman, 1978, p482).   This definition encompasses both physical and mental pain.  Ã‚   It also notes that torture has a purpose, and does not allow torture for the sake of the torturer’s amusement.   The Commission for the European Convention on Human Rights defines torture simply as ‘deliberate inhuman treatment causing very serious or cruel suffering’ (Morgan Evans, 1999, p95).   It offers examples of forcing people to adopt a stress position in rooms where there is a continuous loud hissing noise, hooding, and deprivation of food and water. The Commission for the European Convention on Human Rights’ definition is the author’s preferred definition.   This is because it defines torture, not by the torturer’s intentions, but by the effect the treatment has on the tortured.  Ã‚   A Brief History of Torture The word torture often conjures up images of medieval torture instruments such a branding irons and head screws.   From the mid fourteenth century to the end of the eighteenth century torture was an accepted practise by armies, judicial systems and even churches (Maran, 1989, p vii).   Public opinion changed in the nineteenth century, but torture continued to be carried out.   Once the torture of Jews by the Nazis in the Second World War became public knowledge, numerous international laws were bought into effect to prevent the use of torture.   However, torture still continues to this day, but as its use is still widely condemned, details of torture are either kept non-public, are down played or justified by manipulation of public opinion.   So called civilised countries are just as likely to be the perpetrators of torture today as countries with a known poor human rights record (Kellaway, 2003, p34).  Ã‚  Ã‚   The International Context of Torture International law currently absolutely and unequivocally prohibits torture in all circumstances.   There are many international laws and conventions that define torture as a crime against humanity.   These include The European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and the European Convention on Human Rights.   These two pieces of law are intended to work side by side. The UN Committee Against Torture is a body of independent experts that monitors implementation of the Convention against Torture and other torture related law.   All member states are obliged to submit regular reports to the Committee on how the rights are being implemented (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights). Ethical Theories Applied to Torture There are many and varied ethical theories that could be applied to the question, ‘can the use of torture ever be justified?’   Theories that conclude that torture is never acceptable will be examined first. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) developed Kantian Theory. It is based on the belief that reason is the final authority for morality.   A moral act is an act done for the right reasons (Lovell Fisher, 2002, p314).   Kantian Theory is closely related to the doctrines of all major religions, the Bible states ‘do unto others as you would have them do unto you’.   At the centre of Kantian ethics is his categorical imperative, which is a set of universal rules that outline ‘that only the good will, a will to act out of a sense of duty, has unqualified moral worth’ (Pojman, 1998, p194). Using deontological theory, whereby actions are intrinsically right or wrong, torture can be seen to be unacceptable, whatever the circumstances and consequences.   Deontologists hold that one cannot undertake immoral acts like torture even if the outcome is morally preferable, such as the early ending of a war or the saving of lives. Edmund Burke, the late eighteenth century writer and politician, accused the British of suffering from what he termed geographical morality (Lee Smith, 2004, p16).   ‘Geographical morality’ is when people are prepared to be shocked by and to condemn torture in other countries while condoning its practice by their own authorities.   The British are not the only ones to be guilty of this, many countries, especially in the West can be accused of ‘geographical morality’.  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, there are many other theories that show that torture could be morally acceptable in some situations. John Stuart Mill (1808-73) put forward an ethical theory known as utilitarianism. Utilitarianism can be summed up in the phrase, ‘everyone should act in such a way to bring the largest possibly balance of good over evil for everyone involved’ (Almond, 1988, p127).   Using this theory, torture can be justified if it brings about a greater good for a greater number of people.   The ends justify the means.   Using Utilitarianism Theory, if the torture of one person means that several people are located and rescued from a dire situation, then that torture is justifiable.   Consequentialism offers the idea that torture is justifiable if the consequences of the torture are morally right.   Consequentialism is an ethical view that establishes the rightness or wrongness of actions by the good or bad produced by its consequences.   Interlaced with the question ‘can torture ever be justified?’ is the question ‘can war ever be justified?’   As torture is an agent of war, this seems appropriate.   Just War Theory can be used to justify torture on the grounds that it is acceptable in response to certain situations.   St Thomas Aquinas (1225-74) described ‘jus ad bellum’, the conditions that he believed has to be met for war to be justified.   War has to be ordered by a legitimate authority, it must be waged for a just cause and the intention of those who wage war should be the triumph of good over evil (Almond, 1998, p197).   Of course, the problem with utilising this Just War theory is that fulfilment of the conditions is subjective.   However, it is possible that torture could be morally justified using the Just War Theory if it was carried out by a legitimate government whose general aim is good and with the best of intentions. The concept of proportionality is found in Acquinas consideration of the Just War Theory. He argued that warring activity should be proportionate to the aggression made and therefore not excessive to that aggression.   This would imply that torture, an extremely aggressive warring activity, would be ethically acceptable in response to extremely aggressive actions.   It can be argued that the intentions of a torturer make a difference to the moral value of the action of torture.   In consequentialist theories of ethics, intention is important, as intention is what you hope to achieve by the action.   For Kant, intention can make all the difference between morally correct behaviour and morally incorrect behaviour.   Ideology can play a part in legitimising the use of torture.   Ideology is the body of ideas and beliefs of a group, possibly religious, or nation (Maran, 1989, p11).   If the ideology of the tortured is believed to be morally wrong and the act of torture prevents the spread of this ideology then torture can be deemed to be justified. So, in conclusion, there are ethical theories that both state that torture can never be justified and those that state it can be, in different, varying circumstances. Case Study: Torture in the Algerian War (1954-1962) The Algerian War lasted from 1954 to 1962.   The war was the final part of the process of the decolonisation of Algeria from France.   The war was one of the 20th Centurys bloodiest colonial struggles, and it continues to be the object of intense controversy, especially in France (BBC News, 2001).   It is now public knowledge that the French utilised torture against some Algerians.   This torture has been widely condemned in recent years.   However morality has a historical dimension and the morality of today cannot be used to judge the actions of fifty years ago.  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 1955 a French civil servant, Williaume, was sent by the French government to investigate allegations of torture in Algeria by French military personnel. His report failed to unequivocally condemn the torture that he discovered (Nacquet, 1963, appendix). As a result, the period 1955 to 1962 saw an increase in the amount of torture, not only through Algeria, but also in France itself Paul Aussaresses, a retired French general is quoted as saying â€Å"as far as the use of torture is concerned, it was tolerated, if not recommended.† Aussaresses is unusual in that he openly talked about and wrote about the act of torture and his participation in it.   Although many others have reviewed the use of torture in the Algerian War, Aussaresses is one of the few who were involved and can give first hand accounts.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Therefore his comments that defend the use of torture will be used to form the basis of this part of the report.  Ã‚   Torture, Aussaresses said, was sanctioned at the highest level because of the need to extract urgent information from the enemy.   â€Å"It was a matter of stopping actions which were being prepared for deeds causing the deaths of my fellow French and Algerian citizens,† he said.   He claims to have stopped Algerian bomb makers from killing French civilians by extracting confessions though electric shocks and suffocation. (BBC News, 2001).   Aussaresses seems here to be using Mill’s Theory of Utilitarianism to justify the torture that occurred; he believed it bought about a greater good for a greater number of people.   Whether or not this torture can be considered justified in the light of his comments depends on whether or not the torture did indeed stop other deaths, and of course, whether the reader subscribes to the Theory of Utilitarianism.   Sources note that the effect of the torture of Algerians by French was a retaliation whereby Algerians took part in ‘killing and raping collaborators, rivals and settlers’ (Joly, 1991, p36).   So, in actual effect the torture that Aussaresses describes as the catalyst for saving lives, actually served to result in more life loss.   Therefore, regardless of the beliefs of the author or reader regarding the Theory of Utilitarianism, in this instance the act of torture was not justifiable on the grounds that it bought about the largest possible balance of good over evil for everyone involved. Aussaresses is also quoted as saying â€Å"the men I executed were always men guilty of blood crimes. They had blood on their hands.   I would do it again today if it were against Bin Laden† (BBC News, 2001).   Aussaresses seems to be utilising the concept of proportionality from Acquinas’ Just War Theory to justify the acts of torture and killing here.   He believes his acts were justified as they were in proportion to those perpetrated by the Algerians involved.   However, it is the author’s opinion that the concept of proportionality has no place in ethical thinking.   The old adage ‘two wrongs do not make a right’ is very topical here.   Indeed, may proverbs lead and guide ethical thinking.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Torture cannot be justified because other crimes have been committed by those tortured.   It can be questioned, what right did Aussaresses and his contemporaries have to dish out this punishment?   If people had committed cr imes they should have been tried in a court and justice meted out in that manner.   French people were led to believe that France was ‘crusading for the defence of Western values against the barbarians of the East’ (Hoffman, 1963, p.85).   It is clear, then that ideology was used as a justification to the public of the acts of torture that occurred.   However, the author subscribes to the theory that this justification is flawed due to ‘geographical morality’ as discussed earlier.   I believe this justification was simply used to ensure the public accepted the practise of torture.   Case Study: Torture in the Iraq War (2003 onwards) There has been some conflict in Iraq for the past couple of decades.   For the purposes of this paper the latest Iraq War, commencing 2003 and still continuing will be considered.   This war is a useful case study as it demonstrates, in these more recent times, when torture is seen to be less and less acceptable, how it both still occurs and is justified in different terms to previously.   There is much discourse as to whether or not the Iraq War itself is justified, so the use of torture as part of it questioned considerably.   Using Aquinas’ Just War Theory, the Iraq War is unjust and therefore any torture taking place as part of it is also so.   The War is not believed, by the author to be just as it does not Aquinas’ third condition, that those waging the war are dong it simply to triumph good over evil. There is no doubting that both American and British troops have been involved in some kind of torture of Iraqi nationals.  Ã‚  Ã‚   A Red Cross report, the Armys own Taguba report (British Red Cross, 2004), even the photographs published in newspapers all point to this.  Ã‚   In Camp Bucca during the period August 2003 to February 2004 the following acts have been reported; forcibly arranging detainees in various sexually explicit positions for photographing, and punching, slapping, and kicking detainees, amongst others (Observer, 2004). There is an aspect of ideology being used to justify torture.   It has been noted that the media portrays Islamic people as those who ‘will stop at nothing, including disgraceful acts of terrorism, to disrupt Western values’ (Lee Smith, 2004, p 215).   However, it is the author’s opinion that this does not justify torture.   It is also the author’s opinion that information gained through torture is likely to be unreliable due to this very fanaticism, and therefore make the ‘purpose’ of torture unobtainable. The Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Bill is the emergency legislation that was created in response to the US terror atrocities on September 11th 2001.  Ã‚   It has been accused of eroding civil liberties.   It has contributed to a heightened sense of vulnerability in the British public and perhaps, in part, although not its aim, it has contributed to making the mistreatment and torture of Iraqis more acceptable.  Ã‚   Bin Laden has been vilified in Western press and the torture of Iraqis can be seen as proportional to the atrocious acts committed by Bin Laden and his followers.   There is a real sense of ‘geographical morality’ in the justification of torture by the US and the UK.   When videos of kidnapped Westerners being tortured are viewed, there is universal damnation in the West, but Western personnel behind closed doors are practising similar acts. Conclusion This paper has explored the issue of torture and discussed whether or not is can ever be justified.  Ã‚  Ã‚   The definition of torture, a brief history of torture and the international context of torture have been discussed.   The main part of the report has dealt with the question ‘is torture ever ethical?’ by first exploring ethical theories in relation to this question, and then applying relevant theories to tow case studies, the Algerian War (1954-1962) and the Iraq War (2003 onwards).   It is worth noting that the justifications offered for torture in both cases were very similar, despite the two occurrences being fifty years apart.   Finally, the author would like to offer their opinion and draw to a conclusion the debate offered by the question ‘can torture ever be justified?’   It is the author’s opinion that torture can never be justified and can never be considered the ethically correct thing to do.   There is no ethical theory offered in this paper that the author subscribes to that can correctly be applied to any of the justifications offered in the two case studies used.   Not only that, but torture does not fulfil its intended purpose of gaining useful information and it often brings about more barbarity. Bibliography Almond, Brenda. (1998). Exploring ethics: a travellers tale, Bodmin: MPG Books. Badiou, Alain. (2001). Ethics: an essay on the understanding of evil, London: Verso. BBC News French general on trial over Algeria (2001). 14th April 2005. Available from World Wide Web: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1675992.stm BBC News Chirac condemns torture general (2001). 14th April 2005. Available from World Wide Web: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1312556.stm British Red Cross (2004).   13th April 2005. Available from World Wide Web: http://www.redcross.org.uk/uploads/documents/info%20sheet%20-%20iraq%20november%202004.doc Danner, Mark (2004). Torture and Truth: America, Abu Ghraib, and the War on Terror, New York: New York Review of Books. Evans, Malcolm D. and Morgan, Red (1998). Preventing torture: a study of the European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Gray, John, Benvenisti, Meron and   Ehrenreich, Barbara. (2005). Abu Ghraib: The Politics of Torture, New York: North Atlantic Books. Greenberg, Karen J., Dratel, Joshua L., and   Lewis, Anthony. (2005). The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hoffman, Stanley. (1963). In Search of France, Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Joly, Daniele. (1991). The French Communist Party and the Algerian War.   London: Macmillan Press. Kellaway, Jean. (2003). The History of Torture and Execution: From Early Civilization Through Medieval Times to the Present, London: Mercury Books. Klayman, Barry M. (1978). The definition of torture in international law, v.51, London: Temple Law. LaFollette, Hugh. (1999). Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory, London: Blackwell Publishers. Lee, Roger and Smith, David M. (2004). Geographies and moralities: international perspectives on justice, development and place, London: Blackwell Publishing. Lovell, Alan and Fisher, Colin. (2002). Business Ethics and Values, London: FT Prentice Hall. Maran, Rita. (1989). Torture: the role of ideology in the French-Algerian War, New York: Praeger Publishers. Morgan, Rod and Evans, Malcolm. (1999). Protecting prisoners: the standards of the European Committee for the prevention of torture in context. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nacquet, Vidal. (1963). Torture, Cancer of Democracy, London: Penguin. The Observer – British quizzed Iraqis at torture jail. (2004).   12th April 2005.   Available from World Wide Web: 7http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1212769,00.html Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights UN Committee Against Torture. 17th April 2005.   Available from World Wide Web: http://www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cat/ Pojman, Louis. (1998).   Deontological Ethics, Moral Philosophy, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. Roy, Jules (1961). The War in Algeria, New York: Grove Press.

Problem Based Learning Essay

Students do not learn much just sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves. † Explain how you will conceptualise this principle in your classroom? | There is a saying that goes: â€Å"Give a man a fish; you’ll feed him for a day. Teach a man how to fish; you’ll feed him for a lifetime. † As an educator, I hold on firmly to saying above. When I first started teaching, I told myself that I can either be a teacher who is only concerned about what need to be taught or I can be a teacher who is concerned about what and how something is supposed to be taught. I chose the latter. Why? Students had spent more than 12 years of learning in schools where most of the time, they sit and listen to what the teacher is teaching. Little or less participation on their behalf is incorporated during those 12 years. The main objective is to pass 3 ‘big and important’ examinations in 12 years. Sad to say, they soon forget a big chunk of what they had been learning for the past 12 years immediately after they finish their last paper for SPM. This is because students are only made to remember what they are taught; not to retain them. You can remember information for a specific length of time before you forget about it; but if you can retain that information, you’ll remember it forever. Let’s take mathematic as an example. We were taught how to do simple calculations such as addition since we were 6 years old. We not only learn how to add numbers in class, we also use it in our daily lives too. In a much simple terms, we practice what we learn in school and incorporate it into our daily lives. We retain the skills to do additions by doing and practicing. What about additional mathematics? Frankly speaking, if I was given a set of additional mathematics questions today, I would not be able to solve even the simplest question. Why? Because I did not use any of the formulas I was taught in school in my daily lives. I did not retain the information. Students are unique. They might not have the same way of learning. Lecturers and educators must be aware of their student’s ability in order to make the teaching and learning process a success. â€Å"Students have different levels of motivation, different attitudes about teaching and learning, and different responses to specific classroom environments and instructional practices. † (Brent and Felder, 2005) That is why, students learn best when they are incorporated and is actively involved during the learning process. The traditional method of teaching is more concerned on what the student should learn rather than how the student should be learning. In my class, I use Problem Based Learning (PBL) method. PBL is a new method of learning where there is a balance between what the students should learn and how they should be learning. â€Å"This new approach to learning is bringing about new ways in which students are involved in the learning process. Teachers know that students do not learn at their highest potential when they are in a classroom where the teacher stands at the front of the room and gives them knowledge. † (Utecht, 2003) During class, I encourage my students to speak and share information that they have on the topic. Before I start my lecture, I would first brainstorm the idea of the topic with my students. Initially, students would be reluctant to participate because they are afraid of saying the wrong answer. I encourage them saying that â€Å"if it is an opinion, there is no right or wrong answer†. Students in universities are andragogy learners; they are adult learners. As an adult, they would like to have more control of their own learning. â€Å"Andragogy reorients adult educators from educating people to helping them learn. The methods used may range from isolated instruction within a curriculum or integrated instruction. It may also encompass intentional and unintentional learning situations. † (Crawford, 2004) This type of students would be more interested to learn if they are given more power and control in the learning process. There are six assumptions on andragogy learners: 1. Adults need to know the reason for learning something (Need to Know) 2. Experience  (including  error) provides the basis for learning activities (Foundation). 3. Adults need to be responsible for their decisions on education; involvement in the  planning  and  evaluation  of their instruction (Self-concept). 4. Adults are most interested in learning subjects having immediate  relevance  to their work and/or personal lives (Readiness). 5. Adult learning is  problem-centred rather than content-oriented (Orientation). 6. Adults respond better to internal versus external motivators (Motivation). (Malcom Knowles, 1977) I planned and carry out my teaching and learning process using the 6 assumptions as my main guidance. Most of the time during class, I allow my students to voice out their opinion and share what they have to say on certain topics. I also let them know the objective of the learning and what they will acquire at the end of the class. If they feel that they did not achieve what they should at the end of the lesson, I encourage them to share their problems with their classmates so that they can come up with the solutions together. During my lecturer, I use simple examples which they can easily connect with in their daily lives. I usually share my experience and ask them to share theirs with the class. It takes the seriousness out of the learning process and students felt more comfortable sharing their problems and experience. For me, a relaxed and simple learning environment will encourage the students to be more active and not be reluctant to join in the discussions. A rigid classroom will make the students as cold as ice. Before I started teaching, I told myself to be the teacher that u have never had; the teacher I want to have but did not. I want my students to them around me and to not be ashamed to tell what they have in mind, because I believe the most valuable knowledge is the knowledge that we shared. References Brent. R, & Felder M. R. (2005). Understanding students’ differences. Journal of Engineering Education, 94(1), 57-72 Crawford S. R (2004). Andragogy – Malcolm Knowles. Retrieved March 21 from http://academic. regis. edu/ed205/Knowles. pdf Knowles, M. S. (1973). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston:  Gulf Publishing Company. Utecht R. J. (2003). Problem Based Learning in Student Centred Classroom. Retrieved March 21 from http://www. jeffutecht. com/docs/PBL. pdf

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics2

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics The world of science would find itself lost without research. Research alone however, oftentimes will not answer the questions or solve the problems that scientists set out to solve. Statistics is where research becomes applied and scientists can make educated guesses about future outcomes. â€Å"Formally, statistics is a branch of mathematics that focuses on organization, analysis, and interpretation of a group of numbers† (Aron, Aron, and Coups, 2006). There are two main branches of statistics that we will explore; descriptive and inferential statistics. The main relationship between descriptive and inferential statistics is that they all include numbers from either actual given information or inferred assumptions that try to draw a conclusion or complete given data. Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics is a method of research used by psychologists. Descriptive statistics make statistics understandable and describes a group of numbers for a research study (Aron, Aron and Coups,2006). Descriptive statistics are used in summarizing large sets of quantitative or numerical information. If there is a large amount of information for measurement, the best way to show the information is by a graph (Boerre, 2005). Descriptive statistics provide a simple summary about the sample and the measurements. Descriptive statistics describes the data; it allows the researcher to understand a large amount of numbers or data in a simple way (Social Research, 2009). Central tendency refers to the idea that one number can summarize the entire set of measurement. This is a number that is in some way central to the set (Boerre, 2005). The mode is the measurement that has been found to be the most frequent. Although the mode, or greatest frequency number, is not used very often, it is useful when differences are rare or non-numerical (Boerre, 2005). The median is the number which is half of the measurement, or midpointof the numbers. The median is a good measurement of the centrality of the numbers and is a better measurement in centrality that the mean when the data is skewed (Boerre, 2005). The mean is the average. The mean is the sum of all the measurements, divided by the numbers of the measured. Mean is often used in central tendency (Boerre, 2005). Descriptive statistics may be used in measuring a person’s IQ. When intelligence testing is done, some of these tests are then shown in descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics might also be used in showing the GPA or grade point average of a class. Descriptive statistics makes information clear, concise, and easy to read (Social Research, 2009). An example of descriptive statistics would be tables and graphs which are used a lot in medical research studies. Descriptive statistics allow a researcher to describe or summarize their data. For example, descriptive statistics for a study using human subjects might include the sample size, mean age of participants, percentage of males and females, range of scores on a study measure, descriptive statistics are often briefly presented at the beginning of the Results†, according to, (Statistically Significant Consulting, LLC, 2003-2010). Inferential Statistics Conclusio n Statistics gives form to research in that it organizes, analyzes, and interprets the data collected. Descriptive statistics often describe groups or populations researched, whereas inferential statistics help its users draw conclusions about future events. Both of these statistical methods play valuable roles in science. References Aron, A. , Aron, E. , & Coups, E. (2006). Statistics for Psychology (4th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Statistically Significant Consulting, LLC, (2003-2010). Statistics Overview. Retrieved from http://www. statisticallysignificantconsulting. com/statistics101. htm

Enlightenment And The Enlightenment Movement - 1317 Words

What cultured such an immense need for reform in France between 1690 C.E. and 1789 C.E.? Geo. H. Lewis argues in his DeFOREST ORATION. CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION that the extremely high and constricting taxes implemented in France, the conflicts between the nobility and the working class, and the uncooperativeness of the King created a sense of urgency for the general population of France (Lewis, pg. 51-52). Louis Gottschalk attributes this reform to the revolutionary ideas which were formulated by Rousseau during the Enlightenment movement. The Enlightenment movement in France was a product of the Scientific Revolution, a period in which there were new developments in politics, religion, and science which led to new governmental†¦show more content†¦51-52). The taxes strangled the working class, the privileges of the nobles exempted them from conscription into the military, and King Louis XVI’s inability to perform led to an intense feeling of hatred for the Kin g and the nobility. Lewis reveals the â€Å"weight of taxation† as a strangling force which did not allow for lower class people to support themselves properly (Lewis, pg. 52). Thus, this created an immense amount of discontent which aided in starting the French Revolution. Upper classmen were exempt from such taxes and could avoid mandatory military service which forced more lower classmen into the military to replace the positions which would have been filled in by the upper classmen (Lewis, pg. 52). With the impending taxes and drafting of lower classmen into the military, this further improved conditions for a revolution. To add to all this dissatisfaction, King Louis XVI called an army to quell the National Assembly which created a sense of fear as people believed he would disband the assembly, halting all the progress made in promoting the wellbeing of the Frenchmen (McKay, pg. 663). These events seem to have been a plausible cause for the French Revolution, however, th ese events did not provide the initialShow MoreRelatedEnlightenment And The Enlightenment Movement In The 18th Century975 Words   |  4 PagesEnlightenment is a concept that promoted individual rational logic and thinking as more valuable than traditional. The enlightenment thinkers rejected the old assumption about everything and committed to things that could be demonstrated through scientific experimentation. They are loosely organized intellectual movement, egalitarian, liberal, rationalist, secular, and impartial in both values and outlook. 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Though a majority of the illustrative plates of the Encyclopà ©die do not include any people, as the plates are mostly diagrams about anatomy, scientific concepts, machines, instruments and tools, those that do have people at work portray themRead MoreThe Intellectual Movement of Enlightment828 Words   |  3 PagesThe intellectual movement of Enlightenment was a very intricate movement that was centralized on the concepts of progression, reasoning, and the scientific method. The Enlightenment thinkers believed they could implement some of these ideas to create a better influence towards societies and people. These ideas changed how humanity viewed the government, politics, and society. Although each philosopher had their own individual concept, they all cente red on the themes of equality and freedom. ThomasRead MoreEssay On The Enlightenment1203 Words   |  5 PagesThe Enlightenment The Enlightenment was a time of great reform in ideas and knowledge. It was such an important part of history, that it took many people and many years to fully bring it into play. This time in life was all about change, such as the education of women, the separation of science and church, and the freedom to learn without government censorship. Someone people were on board with the movement, but others fought against the great ideals of Enlightenment. Although, it is sure that withoutRead MoreThe Age Of Enlightenment By Francois Marie Arouet1082 Words   |  5 PagesThe Age of Enlightenment was a time of philosophical movements and new ways of thinking that prevailed in Europe and spread all over the world in the 18th century. This era saw the rise of many writers and philosophers that are still recognized and praised today. Goals like tolerance, reason, progress, and the removal of the injustices of church and state were prominent in works by Enlightenment thinkers. Although they sh ared similar goals, methods to accomplish them were varied. Writers broughtRead MoreThe French Revolution And The Enlightenment1471 Words   |  6 Pagesphilosophies of Enlightenment, will impact the future. Historical figures such as Robespierre heading the Great Assembly will drive change in culture through the revolution, in hopes of achieving enlightened societies. The 18th century marks the beginning of modern history. The French revolution playing a role in furthering Enlightenment, will led to a chain of events that will change the course of the future and modernize the world through the intellectual and revolutionary movements. The forceRead MoreAn Analysis of Candide Story by Voltaire1347 Words   |  6 PagesOptimism† was written in the enlightenment era. Voltaire story is published in The Norton Anthology of Western Literature. Voltaire’s character, Pangolss, is a philosopher who teaches about God morals. Pangolss is also a mentor to Candide, who is the main character of the novel. Candide has a good heart but is also feel s very hopeless in life. Pangloss takes Candide under his wing and teaches him that â€Å"best of all possible worlds.† The enlightenment movement is seen closely in Voltaire writingRead MoreThe Great Awakening And Enlightenment991 Words   |  4 Pages The ages of Great Awakening and Enlightenment were two of the earliest movements in the early colonies. These movements proved that people can be influenced in many different ways in relation to politics and religion. The Great Awakening called for the revival of the evangelical movement, while the age of Enlightenment took the focus off of the traditional church and dared colonists to apply individualistic views of religion, thus birthing many new religious denominations that challenged traditional